Std 8 hindi full paper solution april 2022
Std 8 hindi april2022
Dhoran 8 hindi paper
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In this section I review the effects of sub-baccalaureate education on wages, annual earnings, and other measures of employment, based on several national data sets. These results are generally derived from so-called Mincerian rates of return (as distinguished from internal rates of return), in which the log of wages or earnings is regressed against education, experience, and other variables including family background, ability, race and ethnicity, gender, sometimes regional variables to capture differences in prevailing wages among regions, union membership, and other measures:
(1) ln Y = a + b Ed + c Exp + d Exp2 + . . . + u where u is an error term. The coefficient b is commonly referred to as a rate of return; when education is measured by a series of dummy variables rather than a continuous variable, the coefficient b is approximately equal to the percent increase in wages (or earnings) associated with a change in education.' The research described in this section relies on dummy variables describing schooling rather than continuous variables and the comparison is always to high school education. Before the appearance of recent data sets, most national data reported education in discrete categories including high school completed, "some college," and completion of college.
However, data on "some college" could not be used to disentangle the effects of completing credentials from different amounts of coursework, or education in various fields of study or in different institutions. The early results about sub-baccalaureate education were generally drawn from special-purpose data, usually based on individuals in specific institutions and collected by following up students with questionnaires, often affected by low response rates.
For example, Heinemann and Sussna (1977) analyzed students in a single Midwestern community college; they found an advantage in earnings for completers compared to non-completers, particularly high for non-whites, but it vanished after 8 years for white males. Blair, Finn, and Stevenson (1981) investigated the effects of schooling among technical and scientific employees, based on National Science Foundation data; technical employees with Associate degrees had higher earningson the average about 9.4 percent higherthan those with high school diplomas, while those with 1-3 years of college without a credential earned 5 to 6.2 percent more.
In a widely cited review, Pincus (1980) amassed a number of local studies of community colleges. Apart from problems like low response rates, he tended to compare the employment effects of community colleges with those of completing four-year colleges. Brint and Karabel (1989) similarly rejected the "vocationalizing project" of the community colleges for limiting rather than expanding opportunities for students; but they too relied on articles with serious technical flawsx and stressed that the economic benefits from community college are lower than those from four-year collegeshardly a surprising conclusion, but relevant only if community college students would otherwise enroll in and complete four-year colleges.
Beginning in the 1970s, several national data sets became available with greater detail about education. For example, Monk-Turner (1983) relied on the Parnes data, a sample of young men between 1966 and 1976 and of young women between 1968 and 1977. Entering a four-year college increased occupational status scores compared to entering a two-year college, for men only, though she failed to distinguish entrance from completion. Relying again on the Parnes data, Monk-Turner (1990) found that entering a four-year college (rather than a community college) and completing a baccalaureate degree (rather than entering and failing to complete) increased occupational status scores. This kind of comparison between two- and four-year college enrollment has continued (e.g., Whitaker & Pascarella, 1994).
Breneman and Nelson (1981) was one of the first analyses of NLS72, a survey of a random sample of students from the high school class of 1972 who were followed four times until 1979 and then again in 1986. They found no effect of community college attendance on 1976 wages (failing to distinguish completion from non-completion). However, this study suffered from the problem of measuring results very early in the sample's work lives, when individuals were only four years out of high school (about 22 years old).
