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april 2022
Std 6 hindi april 2022
Dhoran 6 hindi paper
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programs and sometimes certificates for adults. Finally, a variety of proprietary schools offer postsecondary occupational education, ranging from the excellent in well-known institutions like the Culinary Institute of America and the various DeVry Institutesto the fraudulent. Unfortunately, few data sources are able to disentangle the different types of postsecondary institutions.
When researchers are forced to lump postsecondary institutions together, it is important to remember that the variations in quality that might lead to higher and lower economic benefits are simply averaged, describing an overall effect that is not especially meaningful for any particular institution.
On the demand side, there appear to be several special characteristics of the sub-baccalaureate labor market that distinguish it from the market for those with baccalaureate and graduate degreesthough these should be treated as hypotheses meriting further examination.vi The sub-baccalaureate labor market appears to be quite local. Employers looking for occupations requiring less than a baccalaureate degree report that they search locally; their relationships with educational providers tend to be local.
Two-year colleges target local employers as well, and students search for employment almost entirely with the local community. One implication is that the benefits of sub-baccalaureate education may be geographically circumscribed since the reputation of community colleges and other institutions may be spatially limited. Under these conditions, it is important for institutions to be closely connected with local employers: if individuals fail to find local employment in their field of study, they may have a harder time in other areas. Hiring practices for sub-baccalaureate jobs tend to be highly informal, with few performance-oriented tests or absolute education requirements.
As a result, employers may hire on the basis of several equivalent qualifications. Specific experience is usually preferred to formal schooling, and preparation in the military, on the job, and through hobbies may be as valuable as formal schooling. In contrast, education is more likely to be an absolute prerequisite for professional and technical jobs at the baccalaureate level.
For example, only 36 percent of those with some college report that they needed formal schooling to get their current job, compared with 72 percent of those with baccalaureate degrees (Eck, 1993, Table 6). Under these conditions, the returns to formal schooling are likely to be lower and more uncertain, since those with certificates and Associate degrees may be working alongside individuals with lower levels of formal schooling and other forms of occupational preparation. The jobs held by individuals with sub-baccalaureate education appear to be more cyclically sensitive than those held by individuals with baccalaureate degrees, since employers are likely to lay off less-educated workers before welleducated employees with more general and firm-specific training.
One consequence is that individuals with sub-baccalaureate education are more likely than those with baccalaureate degrees (though less likely than high school graduates) to suffer unemployment over the business cycle. In turn, this implies that the economic returns to formal schooling measured by annual earnings might vary cyclically, with returns higher in periods of high unemployment when more formal schooling enhances employment as well as wage rates.
Finally, in determining the value of education, there are several wellknown statistical problems in examining wages, earnings, and other employment effects. Because postsecondary institutions differ substantially in their quality and selectivity, students vary in their high school grades and other academic qualifications, their family backgrounds, their purposes and ambitions; those entering occupational programs differ from those enrolling in academic programs for the purpose of transferring to four-year colleges.
Similarly, measures of ability have long been recognized as critical
to disentangling the direct effects of formal schooling from effects of
ability. Of course, researchers are restricted by the measures of academic
achievement, family background, and ability included in
